What do races look like

The stories I am talking about are short. Very short. Six words long. And it is amazing how much power people can pack into such a small package. Mama loves your curls. Gross, Inglewood, California. More amazing is how the exercise, over time, has opened a window for people to share much more than just their six words about who they are and what they are feeling. The submissions that arrive via snail mail, the Internet, and Twitter are often accompanied by comments, essays, pictures, and artwork.

And of the more than 30, submissions I have archived, a large percentage, in some way, touch upon multiracial experiences—most specifically marriage, parenting, and the questions of identity for the resulting offspring. A Pew Research Study found that interracial marriages in the U.

To put that in context, one of out of every seven new marriages is among people of different racial backgrounds. But today the blurring of the color line is much more stratified and much more diverse.

The Pew study found that among newlyweds in , 36 percent of Asian women married outside their race, compared with 17 percent of Asian men. Pew also found that 26 percent of Hispanics married outside their race, compared with 9 percent of whites and 17 percent of blacks.

The six-word tales that have poured into the Race Card Project create a portal that allows us to dive beyond the surface into the deeply nuanced issues of racial ambiguity and cultural identity.

They are by no means comprehensive. It is not possible to explain every facet of multiracial life. But the six-word stories present a broad mosaic that informs us in these times and will serve as an amazing archive in the future as we try to understand the years when America was steaming toward a majority-minority status.

For many, there are no easy answers—or no fixed answer. Identity is not always a concrete concept but rather something that is situational, or shifting, based on time, place, growth, or circumstance. Nina Boyd Krebs, whose book of the same title explores how people form diffuse cultural boundaries in the new Global Frontier. They are calm when people stare or ask about their suntans or light eyes. They enjoy confounding people. Humor is always in their toolbox.

Patience too. They see these encounters as a chance to chip away at a tortured history. There are also those who don various identities based on convenience, advantage, or comfort.

I think David and people like him, are just using the social construct of race to express a different, underlying belief.

Certainly something fear-based. Once earth orbit and space travel objectively proved the shape of earth, it was on to other things not known-except for those few people who needed a really aggressive way of expressing their distrust of government and authority. If we can find out what David and people like him are afraid of, we might put the social construct of race out to the same pasture where the penguins guarding the ice wall reside.

First of all, if you know how dna works… the dna Im one human body could stretch back from here to the sun back and forth many times over. Humans who left Africa bred with others outside of Africa such as the Neanderthals. Also mixing is more genetically sound and proper biologically speaking, it can breed out defects and diseases and also improves genetic fitness with more mutations to draw from.

Like brain size, IQ, impulsivity and likelyhood of committing violent crime. This is why geographical terminology best applies to geography and and should not be so heavily relied upon for a discriptor for race. Race moves location and changes with time.

There was a time in my life that the study of DNA or genes was quite interesting. Your comments are based on observation and the studies of thousands before us. We seek answers to questions we are unlikely to ever know, but it keeps us from boredom. Do you have bias? I do to some extent. The majority of our opinions are theory, but leave room for expressions that differ from our own if we cannot prove differently.

Arm yourself with intelligence. Just as all people who are not from Africa have Neanderthal admixture and Asians have Denisovan admixture, Africans have admixture from archaic hominids. Humans are remarkably genotypically and phenotypically different. The researchers then calculated the probability that each stretch of DNA was inherited from a Neanderthal ancestor.

The researchers found that African individuals on average had significantly more Neanderthal DNA than previously thought—about 17 megabases Mb worth, or 0. By suggesting that Europeans introduced Neanderthal sequences into Africa, the new study points to an explanation: Researchers previously assumed that Neanderthal sequences shared by Europeans and Africans were modern and subtracted them out.

After correcting for that bias, the new study found similar amounts of Neanderthal DNA in Europeans and Asians—51 and 55 Mb, respectively. Are you being disingenuous? Your skin colour is determined by your genes. Or, perhaps you think we are painted white, yellow, brown or black while passing through the vagina? If so seemingly nearly all but albinos choose the same colour.

What are you talking about? That is why the Out of Africa can not be disproven up till today. Otherwise, it was easy to disprove it. Why do you only have venom and ill-wishes for my kind? We have seen all the terrible things you have done and how everything you say is an excuse to cause more trouble.

You only have hateful terms for White people yet nothing but approval for everyone else. You are all frauds and simpletons, and your kind will not rule forever.

Stay perpetually mad that we exist and will continue to exist. Greetings: what about pheramonal DNA research from smelling people of different races in relation to the flight to fight instinct. What is the difference in sweat between the three main races? Is anyone doing research in sweat? How does the unconscious mind react to sweat in blind testing.

Controlled test: have one asian, one white and one black person run on a treadmill long enough to sweat. Blindfold three people of the three different races. Hook them up to an electroencephalogram, electrocardiogram. And galvanic responce meter. The have them smell the sweat blindfolded not knowing the visual race of the person before them and see the results.

Has anyone tried this. Not a Carey grant or president grant either? Just as deer avoid areas where carnivores urinate, based on what the carnivore has eaten I.

Good luck not with that. There are temples in India that they believe to be over years old. Predating the pyramids. I think the different races were seeded here from other galaxies. No prob. Just be kind. The master said it and it solves all human problems. Evidence points to the fact that our nomenclature needs another level. Is a blackbird and a redwing blackbird the same species?

Skin color is. The classical definition of a species is a group of organisms whose members are able to breed with one another and produce viable offspring, which clearly applies to all humans regardless of skin color. Additionally, I feel that you have latched on to one trait, skin color, to lend support to your point of view, but why that particular trait?

Why not eye color? Humans have many different traits that have evolved over time to create disparities and visible difference between various groups, but we are all different flavors of the same design, none better than another.

Like cranial capacity. Cranial capacity can be grouped into at least three different identifiable populations. Caucazoid, mongaloid and negroid. The cranial capacity varies greatly between the three with the largest gap between the northeast Asians and sub Saharan Africans.

Dogs share Why when differences in humans are so apparent must it be a crime to ignore them. Why call those that see the obvious difference racist.. I love thiz feed. Racists and non racists and scientist referees.

I think the white racists are being bred out. That makes them hysterical. A couple more generations they will disappear. Lost breed. Im glad to see mexicans come over the border and black mix with white and muslins on TV.

If the game-changer is skin color than literally millions of African Africans are not black because the appearance of their skin color is white.

LOL Your point is moot. No one has ever said that skin color is the game changer. There is more to it then skin color. And yes, it is true that millions of African Americans are note even black but mixed, as is the case with Katherine Johnson. This is one of the many brilliant African-Americans who have made remarkable contributions to the world. Thank you for sharing. When the U. The founders of this nation believed in the principle of equality under the law.

There is also ZERO biological evidence of more than one human race, though there are inherited traits based on ancestry. There is Zero basis on any difference in intellectual or physical superiority between these population groups. Different populations make for different cultures, especially when separated,…. There is enormous evidence for major intellectual and physical differences between ethnicities races. Ashkenazi Jews have an average IQ a full standard deviation higher than Europeans and hispanics are a full deviation below Europeans and Africans are another standard deviation below hispanics.

Pygmies male average height is under 5 feet while Dutch or Masai average height is above 6 feet. In the African equatorial rain forest pygmies are superior and in the tropical Savannah of East Africa Masai are superior. There are differences between races such as skin colour, hair type, eye colour, athletic ability, etc based on genetic inheritance.

Studies have also shown that there are huge differences in intelligence. Lowest average IQ is in sub Saharan Africa where it is These IQ values correlates very well with what the different peoples achieved over the millenia and today as well with their wealth.

These traits are all due to natural selection. You needed a high IQ to survive in the cold north during the ice age. To survive in Africa you needed a dark skin and strong muscles but a high IQ was not necessery. Whether these differences are enough to constitute different species, is ofcourse another question.

North America was never really a nation besides the Aztecs,myans and the surrounding civilizations which were located in Mexico and central America. A northern European cannot move to the Southwest US and not expect ramifications such as really high skin cancer rates , and neither can a Somali move to Sweden and not have a detrimental health reaction. This goes for diet as well.

If someone of indigenous ancestry changes their diet to something more native american, I would expect improvement. Then according to you, wolves and dogs must be one species then too. And dolphins must be related to fish…. Homo Sapiens then backtracked into Africa exterminating anything that was left of Homo Erectus.

I say nothing can replace intuition as a way of determining who is similar to you and who is not. Saying West Africans and Scandinavians are so similar that what you see is just an illusion will never pass with the majority of psychologically healthy people. They was skulls of lesser or not understood mankind species. Hi You are so correct Susan. First, trump is not a Caucasian but is of Negroid racial origin. Darwin, who started this out of Africa lie was a racist against Caucasians and Asians who have larger brains.

So to put his race on an equal level he made the false claim all humans evolved from primates in Africa which is a lie. Primates have always been this species as humans have always been the same species. His concept of evolution is so stupid of a lie he even said fish could become animals, ect.

No that is not true, but their are adaptation programs in all creatures that help them survive in changes to the environment but they still remain the same species. I doubt it. Till this day and for all the other centuries before all life has come out of Africa every study recognizes living humanity 7 million years ago in Africa whereas every other young society of humans are thousands of years younger… so why is that silly to you? Much later some of the group that went to Asia traveled further to Europe.

Peter, I love your diatribe. To be human is to be at peace with being yourself. The rest is just opinion. Everyone has an opinion. Good for you. And have you noticed how virtually all racial and ethnic groups on earth tend to self segregate? Forcing groups together is what seems to be the unnatural thing.

The only thing we can say with any real confidence is that humans of all backgrounds and appearances really love to avoid admitting obvious truths because it might hurt somebody in the feels. The aliens are laughing at us. No other races behaves in the same way as carcasuons mixed with Neanderthals.

Most other races are not fearful and hateful of other people, almost seemingly on a genetic level. Most races are curious or interested in different people yet white people seem to be scared or threatened by what is different. The only explanation of this unique behavior in white people, is that they are mixed with a primitive type of hominid that makes them way more susceptible to hate and fear.

Kind of like what predatory animals do with other predatory species for competitive reasons. Early humans in Europe probably befriended and exploited other types of hominid and then killed off the Neanderthals only keeping the more cooperative Neanderthals, which they bred out of existence.

The remaining neanderthals were probably slaves until bread out of assistance. They take what other people have and build upon it, much like their ancestors probably did to other types of humans, this behavior has never left them.

Donald Trump knows how to whip up those primitive attributes of early man and neanderthal in white people. Human intelligence has more to do with environment, resources and access to good education.

Western Europeans are unique amongst other societies in their level of interest in outside cultures. They are the only group of humans that have taken the culture artifacts of other human societies, studied them, and put them in museums given them value! Most of other human societies destroy the artifacts of their rivals.

Your arguments about hate and fear in white European societies is completely baseless. Fear of outsiders is a fundamental human trait, and Europeans have done more to override this in their development of modern, open, and inclusive society than other group of humans in the history of the planet.

Are you looking at the entire span of human history? Europe has had its dark ages. Civilizations rise and fall. It is so sad to hear anti European and anti African comments.

You have missed the point of the article. I am sad. Civilizations rise and fall just as ethnic groups grow and go extinct. Europe is made up of the rape babies of waves of conquerors. Then the Anatolian Farmers were out-competed by Aryan warriors who arose from Anatolian farmers. Later the Aryans were replaced by Goths, who were also a subset of Aryans. Evolution requires that most ethnicities go extinct.

Modern Europeans arose from a teeny-tiny subset of founding Europeans who came from the Caucasus. It was Arab scholars who help Europeans to translate books in Arabic into English that contained the history of the Greeks and the Romans. Europeans had not maintained that history, had regressed went backward and could barely tell the time of the day. History was rewritten to make it seem like civilization started in Europe and the rest of the world waited in darkness for Europeans to bring light.

However, the historical fact is there would have never been a renaissance or re-birth of Europe if not for the Moors of North Africa and the East Arab scholars who transmitted to dark Europe. You are incorrect sir. Thank you for your post debunking the idea that whites created intellectual curiosity and the notion of knowledge making. Indeed, African universities such as at Timbuktu and other places of learning during the Islamic golden age did have the kind of intellectual diversity of modern colleges- astronomy, poetry, religion.

And of course, the philosophical discussions among Sanskrit grammarians from India goes back more than a thousand years. Currently there are exclusive white hate groups in the usa. More then any race in the entire world. Fear of outsiders is not a fundamental human trait. Take for example native americans. If fear was such a dominate trIt early settlers would have never made it off their boats. Same with spain and the mayans. Same with africans and europeans. Thats a lie given to us by religion and history proves it.

Settlers generally where decently armed but very outnumbered. I dont hate anyone just replying. Natie Americans were mostly wiped out because of diseases that were carried by Europeans.

Hopefully your post was sarcasm. You also apparently are extremely ignorant if you think racism is confined to white people. Go live with the million Uyghurs held in encampments by the Han Chinese.

Go talk to the Rohinga. Go learn about the other slave trade along the Mediterranean. Humans are racists and use power to entrench it when they can, not just one particular color of them. A virulent anti-white just gave a commencement speech at Harvard Tim Wise.

To identify myself,I am an old man,90 in a couple of months. I see no way out of the rageful climate in which we find ourselves as a nation. I saw many statements bemoaning the confounding the science of race with politics.

Unfortunately, it seems to be impossible to separate any discussion of race, scientific or otherwise,from politics. Just look at history in general , or US history in particular. Read that again…. You want to bring up slavery?

Why not bring up how hundreds of thousands of whites died fighting to free the slaves? Feel free to spend some time looking at the actual stats from FBI and other neutral sites. That ended decades ago. Check me out at eraseraces. They fought to preserve their way p of life—free labor. Cynthia Ward seems to believe that absolutely zero white people fought on the side of tbe Union. Wait so your calling all white people primitive, hateful, fearful and essentially sub-human?

Seems a bit racist. I cant remember the name , but there is an interesting documented example of a group of townsfolk in the north of the country were so appalled by what they had learned, they couldnt bloody believe it ; downed tools that meant no pay for people who are already poor and walked all the way to London many, many miles away no doubt getting support along the way; to protest. Our species has been violent and continues to be violent… i thnk the question should be , what can we do as a species to acknowledge our properderence to violence and ensure effective controls are in place to minimise it.

Enhancing our cultures, exchanging the best bits, supporting each other etc its a huge subject area but must be solved if we wish to avoid extinction.

So, you know…. Please re-read the article. While it is admirable that you are taking aim at White Supremacist tropes, you are mis-interpreting many of the points made about genetics by the author. What a joke. You sound so jealous. Only white race has hatred and fear? Perhaps you should read a bit more about Asian and African history. The Shaka Zulu story is a good example of discriminatory and predatory behaviour of a leading African tribe against neighbouring tribes, not different from the experience in Europe or Asia.

Quite reminiscent in fact of German ascendancy in Europe. As for Asia, you could not be more wrong: fear and hatred in abundance. You should ponder on this. How is it that Mesopotamian, Nile and, later, Greek races developed to such superior cultural levels? Which traits did any of these borrow from African tribes? Interesting, no? Weather has no bearing on success. Race and Culture are very important building blocks for success. The Whites have both. When the Whites ruled Zimbabwe it was a prosperous country with all natural resources fully capitalized; what happened when they left?

All that the native government and people had to do was to just carry on with the building blocks built by the colonizers; instead, they unleashed their atavistic instincts on their own land and people and degraded everything great they once had. South Africa is not far behind. Empirical evidence exposes it all. Show one country in the entire globe where the Whites went except for 5 countries, they colonized everything which did not prosper.

Countries like India and other Asian countries which are now successful at least carried on with the building blocks of success set up by the Whites: hence, they are prospering. Show one African country that is succeeding!

Sounds taunting or provoking, but that is the sad reality. Even Asian countries that are doing so well in science and technology, commerce and contracts, are not innovators, but those who have copied from the Western White and even improved.

Even for that there is a need for innate capabilities. The bottom line is clear as daylight. Race is not a myth: it is a reality- maybe it is an offensive reality. Africa developed rice for example concurrently with China. Africa has had its own kingdoms and still retains the richest person that ever lived. What have you been smoking. Racist comments, one and all. Did you read this article at all? There is no proof that there are separate human races.

We are all one race. Thanks for attempting to restore the sanity. You are correct. We are one race. I am part neanderthal and white peope are full of fear and modern media compounds the problem by feeding our fears. You do realize that you are making generalizations about people based on race, which is, by definition, racism.

I am mostly northern European in ancestry, and it never occurred to be to consider myself superior or exile people from other races. This is because we are not many. We are one! We must stop explaining racism, or justify racism, or vilifying racists based on their race. The value-of-a-person-is-based-on-their-ancestry notion must DIE. It is the source of most of the great holocausts in our history and creates massive conflict to this day. It is absolutely, unequivocally ridiculous.

I have also come to this conclusion. Whites are primitive and fearful, for an unknown reason. Perhaps it is genetics. Careful consideration of the terminology used in biomedical studies forces both scientists and the public to more clearly understand the questions being asked and the variables used to do so. The goal is not to ignore patterns of human biological or genetic diversity, but rather to identify new methods to explore these patterns that do not reproduce the harm caused when human biological variation is treated as a mere synonym for racial categories built on the hierarchical organization of people.

In resisting the scientifically historical idea of race where separate human groups were ranked hierarchically, C.

Emphasizing the sociocultural construction of race in no way diminishes the reality of race as a powerful phenomenon. Rather, racial experience is emphasized as an embodied experience that is as real and as valid as biological variation. Yudell et al. Such research is important to understand how structural inequities and discrimination produce health disparities in socioculturally defined groups.

According to a survey by Wagner et al. Here is a glance at the orientation within that anthropological majority:. To a first approximation, then, we mean that, unlike a naively regarded fact of nature, which is presumably there to be observed and transparently understood, race is a product of history; and although it is often associated with variation in biological form, it is inherited according to cultural, not biological, rules.

It can only be grasped through the humanities: historically, experientially, politically. Race involves imposing some cultural patterns upon human differences. Troubles arise when social predilections lead us to mistake cultural facts for biological ones and vice versa. Races are not merely human divisions, they are politically salient human divisions.

All classifications exist to serve a purpose; the purpose of a racial classification is to naturalize human differences—that is, to establish important categories and make their distinctions appear to be rooted in nature, rather than in history or politics. Yet, dog breeding standards influence assumptions about hard-wired behavior characterizing and differentiating human groups.

The jump from clustered physical variation to the assertion of superior and inferior, biologically-based behavioral variation at the group level is the crux of the matter. From this mistaken perspective, the notion of race as a social construct is seen as absurd and so is down-playing the biological basis for race, because to do so is to be willfully stupid, ignorantly anti-science, or brainwashed by a politically correct denial of reality.

First, they establish that medical approaches to both human and dog disease share similarities; individual dogs and humans can be sensitive to different drugs and this is sometimes due to inherited genetic variants, which means that the risk varies between dog breeds and between human races. Then, they ease into a discussion of an experiment where a scientist noted individual behavioral differences among several puppies of different breeds.

First of all, as we have shown, the dog breed-human race analogy is not biologically sound—it assumes race as a natural biological category of humans, a priori. Second and inextricably related, the analogy denies sociocultural context, both past and present. What is more, it includes unquestioned and largely unfounded assumptions about genetically-determined and predictable human behavior. Scientists are still discovering whether and how dog behaviors are breed-specific and, when they are, how heritable they are.

There is much known but also much more to learn about what else influences behavioral variation among dogs like weaning age, diet, and other conditions during development. A recent meta-analysis of the heritability of dog behavior concluded that not only are breed standards poorly aligned with the actual behaviors of the breeds they aim to define, but they describe behaviors with little genetic component in the first place Hradecka et al.

These meta studies emphasize that variable behavior within breeds is often overlooked. They also highlight how difficult it is to operationalize behaviors like aggression and intelligence and how difficult it is to measure and compare intelligence in dogs; some dogs solve problems thanks to their relatively heightened senses of smell, while for others it is thanks to their higher energy that keeps them active long enough to solve the problem by chance Mehrkam and Wynne In the zeitgeist, scientific enthusiasm for genetics has encouraged genetic essentialism, which is the tendency to consider genetic outcomes to be immutable and determined, to prioritize the influence of genes on complex outcomes, to view groups with shared genetic heritage as homogeneous and discrete, and to view genetic outcomes as the most natural and even to be the most morally acceptable Dar-Nimrod and Heine Genetic essentialism, where genes are synonymous with essence, is fertile ground for beliefs that meaningful, distinctive individual behaviors have a predictive individual biological basis even in the absence of any identified genes.

Variation in human behavior has its roots in both complex genetic and non-genetic factors. Claims that such factors, or their interactions, map neatly onto geographically and socially constructed human groups and can be used to predict behavioral traits associated with such groups, or of an individual member of a group, are not scientifically supported. Hierarchical ranking of human races is also inherently competitive, which is just one reason why outdated and overly simplistic conceptions of evolutionary biology have historically paired with racism, and still do.

Within this racist framework, hindsight paints the dominant group as the more genetically intelligent and naturally selected one, justifying its dominance with perceived biological superiority. In many cases, perpetual mutation and drift are enough to explain evolutionary divergence Hedges et al. The need for such a foundation or some intellectual justification for the enslavement of Africans and the oppression and exploitation of indigenous peoples during the period of European colonization and its subsequent racisms—without question motivated belief in human races [as real and important, biologically differentiated types of humans].

People, scientists and nonscientists alike, are susceptible to the same biased thinking and assumptions as they make sense of human biological variation and human social, economic, and political inequality and the intersections of those phenomena.

Over 30 years ago, biology educator, Vance described this problem and how educators were complicit. He argued that scientists and science educators are racist if they are not actively facing the racism that appeals to science. Science educator Brian Donovan is attempting to engage exactly as Vance suggests with junior high school biology students.

Figure 1 from Donovan , but with our addition of the red box. He also found that they were less interested in socializing across racial lines and were more opposed to policies aimed at reducing racial inequalities in education.

But, if it does, it should also teach students that inequality can be sustained when people are led to believe that racial difference is genetic.

The existence of the erroneous human race-dog breed analogy suggests that there may be unintended negative consequences of using artificial selection as a model for teaching natural selection.

Since artificial selection can produce relatively discrete between group variation and low heterozygosity in a short period of time, perhaps models of artificial selection as teaching tools are inappropriate for middle or high school biology education. Perhaps the answer is not to take artificial selection out of curricula because dogs, cats and other familiar organisms make for engaging pedagogy , but to explicitly and rigorously juxtapose it against the rest of evolution.

For example, hands-on activities that explore the different ways that evolutionary forces such as selection, gene flow, and drift e. Lee et al.

This paper bridges academic literature and popular culture. Not an insignificant proportion of Americans refuse mainstream academic knowledge; our paper offers a way forward for those caught up in that culture regarding race.

The dog breed-human race analogy is destructive; if folks see how it does not stand up to biology, then maybe they will better understand the complexity and significance of race. Several decades ago, well before most of the research we cited here was possible, Montagu covered familiar territory:. The Irish setter, for example, is always red-haired, but his red hair has no connection with his temperamental qualities.

The Irish setter has the same kind of temperament as the English setter, but the hair color of the English setter is white and black. The only difference between the white, the black, the white and black, and the red setters is in their coat color; there are no significant differences in their mental or temperamental qualities.

No one ever asks whether there are mental and temperamental differences between white, black, or brown horses—such a question would seem rather silly.

When, however, it comes to man, the prejudice of anyone who has ever made the statement that skin color is associated with mental capacity is accepted as gospel. For such an assumption there is about as much justification as there would be for the assumption that there exist substantial differences between different color varieties of setters.

We know this to be false concerning setters only because we have paid more unprejudiced attention to the mental qualities of dogs than we have to those of human beings. Scholars and critics may assert that because science has a history of encouraging racialism, scientific racism, and racist appeals to science, then science should step aside in this endeavor. But we believe that racist appeals to science deserve scientific rebukes, at least as one kind of strategy among many.

While we have attempted here to address one very specific belief about human variation, it is embedded in widespread, biased assumptions about dogs and within a dauntingly complex history of science and its sociocultural consequences. Anthropologists, evolutionary biologists, geneticists, scientists, scholars, academics, teachers, writers, journalists, parents, and citizens must move the popular conception of human evolution and human variation past the days of Blumenbach and Darwin.

To do so means to question not just what we think we know about ourselves but what we think we know about everything around us too. Being so familiar and so widely adored, dogs have significant potential to untether racism from evolutionary biology, for good. Toward that end, we showed that the categories we impose on humans and dogs are different in important ways, and that the comparison lends no science to racism.

Equating the differences between two human beings to the idealized differences between a greyhound and a bulldog is the province of poetry or prejudice, not science. Nat Commun. Adhikari K, et al. American Association of Physical Biological Anthropologists. AAPA statement on race and racism. Accessed 10 June American Kennel Club. Accessed 5 Apr American Society of Human Genetics. ASHG denounces attempts to link genetics and racial supremacy. Am J Hum Genet.

Human population genetic structure and inference of group membership. Genetic architecture of skin and eye color in an African-European admixed population. PLoS Genet. Bolnick D. Individual ancestry inference and the reification of race as a biologically phenomenon. Revisiting race in a genomic age. Rutgers University Press: New Brunswick; Google Scholar. Ancient European dog genomes reveal continuity since the Early Neolithic. Interaction of Alu polymorphisms and novel measures of discrimination in association with blood pressure in African Americans living in Tallahassee, Florida.

Hum Biol. Complex population structure in African village dogs and its implications for inferring dog domestication history. Brace CL. New York: Oxford University Press; Coat variation in the domestic dog is governed by variants in three genes.

Genome-wide association studies of quantitatively measured skin, hair, and eye pigmentation in four European populations. Castle WE. Dog crosses and human crosses: a review.

J Hered. Article Google Scholar. Genetic basis for systems of skeletal quantitative traits: principal component analysis of the canid skeleton.

Loci associated with skin pigmentation identified in African populations. Dannemann M, Kelso J. The contribution of Neanderthals to phenotypic variation in modern humans. Genetic essentialism: on the deceptive determinism of DNA. Psychol Bull. Darwin C. Descent of man. London: John Murray; Dobzhansky T. A review of some fundamental concepts and problems of population genetics.

Donovan BM. Learned inequality: racial labels in the biology curriculum can affect the development of racial prejudice. J Res Sci Teach.

Toward a more humane genetics education: learning about the social and quantitative complexities of human genetic variation research could reduce racial bias in adolescent and adult populations. Sci Educ. Edwards AWF. Web-based, participant-driven studies yield novel genetic associations for common traits. Analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplotypes: application to human mitochondrial DNA restriction data.

Genomic and archaeological evidence suggest a dual origin of domestic dogs. Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States, — National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Stat. Gibbons A. Shedding light on skin color. Gravlee L. How race becomes biology: embodiment of social inequality.

Am J Phys Anthropol. Genetic ancestry, social classification, and racial inequalities in blood pressure in Southeastern Puerto Rico. A molecular basis for classic blond hair color in Europeans. Nat Genet. Haldane JBS. The argument from animals to men: an examination of its validity for anthropology.

They interpret the results to mean that same-race faces are encoded elaborately, with an emphasis on the unique facial features that help us to distinguish one person from another. For other-race faces, however, this individuating information is encoded less robustly.

Consequently, we have a poorer memory for other-race faces, and are therefore less likely to recognise them or to distinguish between them. Distinctive other-race faces appear to be an exception, however, and may be processed in a similar way to same-race faces. The other study comes from Robert Caldara's lab at the University of Glasgow, and looks at how the brain's responses change with repeated exposure to same-race and other-race faces.

The brain is well known to adapt to familiar stimuli, so that the neural activity evoked by them decreases with repeated exposure to them. Faces evoke a larger N response in the occipital and temporal lobes than other visual stimuli, but the size of this response decreases when the same face is seen again. Caldara's group recruited 12 white and 12 east Asian participants, and used EEG to monitor the N response while they viewed sequences of two faces.

In each sequence, the faces were either white or east Asian; some sequences consisted of the same face with a different expression, while others contained faces of two different people. The participants were simply asked to indicate whether or not the two faces in each sequence were the same. Both groups of participants found it more difficult to identify the other-race faces.

This was reflected in the neural activity, too — the N response was significantly decreased when participants viewed same-race faces a second time, but not when they saw other-race faces again. Interestingly, the neural responses obtained when the white participants saw the same east Asian face twice were no different from those obtained when they saw two different white faces.

The other-race effect has been consistently observed in whites, but these findings suggest that it may be a generalised response that occurs in people of all races. Caldara and his colleagues put forward an explanation for the "all look alike" phenomenon, based on their findings. The N is an early response to visual stimuli, which occurs in a time window associated with categorising objects.