Mathison why triangulate

Kimbark Ave. She specializes in program traits, several methods should be employed to measure evaluation and qualitative research methods. In ac- valid research findings. Even be explicated in order to understand why a different con- Denzin questions the plausibility of such a notion in the ception of triangulation will be introduced later in this notes at the end of the chapter.

First is the assumption that the bias inherent in any particular data source, investigator, and particularly My use of theoretical triangulation must in no way be method will be canceled out when used in conjunction construed as a defense of ecelecticism.

Indeed, with other data sources, investigators, and methods. The sociologists committed to a given perspective will prob- second, and related, assumption is that when triangula- ably not employ theoretical triangulation. The great tion is used as a research strategy the result will be a con- value of this strategy, as I see it, however, is its vergence upon the truth about some social phenomenon.

In this sense it method research design is a puzzling one that frequently is most appropriate for the theoretically uncommitted, goes unexamined. Jick , p. However, Denzin tion in a study of the effects of a merger on company em- expands the notion of data triangulation to include time ployees. Denzin explicates the value of five different and space based on the assumption that understanding a methods experiment, survey, participant observation, social p h e n o m e n o n requires its examination under a vari- unobtrusive methods, and historical methods given his ety of conditions.

So, for example, to study the effect of theoretical perspective and the factors associated with in- an inservice program on teachers, one should observe ternal and external validity according to Campbell and teachers at different times of the school day or year and Stanley. This discussion suggests that different methods in different settings such as the classroom and the teachers' produce different understandings of a social phenomenon lounge.

This perhaps more than other types of triangula- will be cancelled out in an overall design. However, the deci- tive, that is, individuals make claims which are the sole sion about who these multiple researchers should be and property of that person. Scriven's distinction be- what their roles should be in the research process is proble- tween the quantitative and qualitative senses of objectiv- matic Denzin, ; Miles, How much hands-on ity illustrate some of the confusion here.

In the quantitative data collection the principal investigator needs to do in sense of objectivity, an individual's view is considered to order to analyze the data, and how much data analysis is be subjective and the collective view of many individuals relegated to field workers because much of the analysis oc- is an objective one. In the qualitative sense of objectivity, curs as data are collected, are both relevant and not easily "[b]eing objective means that the observation is factual, answered questions.

The quantitative no- of triangulation and refers to the use of multiple methods tion of objectivity seems to underlie discussions of tri- in the examination of a social phenomenon. Psychologists angulation at the expense of the qualitative sense of ob- have long used Denzin's notion of within-method tri- jectivity. So the use of any single method, just like the view angulation in assessing psychological traits.

Multiple scales of any single individual, will necessarily be subjective and comprise a psychological assessment such as an intelligence therefore biased. Triangulation is the methodological test in an effort to assess the different aspects of in- counterpart to intersubjective agreement and, just as with telligence.

The lie detector scale in some psychological in- individuals, reliability is confused with validity. The ventories is another example. Denzin suggests that the evidence produced by different methods might be different within-methods triangulation approach has limited value, because of bias in the measures but it is also possible that because essentially only one method is being used, and different methods tap different domains of knowing.

Un- finds the between-methods triangulation strategy more til the argument that bias cancels itself out in a multi- satisfying. Other researchers seem to follow this lead and method design is more fully explicated, there seems little focus primarily on between methods triangulation.

This It is with this type of triangulation that Denzin relies most assumption suggests that when a triangulation strategy is heavily on the work of Webb et al. And, if one examines the A second and probably more frequently occurring out- metaphors in discussions of triangulation it is apparent that come from a triangulation strategy is inconsistency among convergence on a point or object is the desired goal.

For the data. When multiple sources, methods, and so on are example, in the commonly used navigational metaphor the employed we frequently are faced with a range of perspec- process involves using multiple reference points to deter- tives or data that do not confirm a single proposition about mine the location of yet another point, usually a place or a social phenomenon.

Rather, the evidence presents alter- object. Military strategists use such a model in locating native propositions containing inconsistencies and am- enemy targets. So, given certain information one can ac- biguities. With this outcome it is not clear what the valid curately and accuracy is very important if one wants to claim or proposition about something is.

It is possible not only ject. Extending this metaphor to social phenomena, the for data to be inconsistent but to actually be contradictory. This does not suggest that the metaphor itself makes If one were to accept the assumptions that triangulation researchers adhere to this assumption, but rather the should result in a single claim because bias is naturally metaphor used reflects the assumption and in its use rein- cancelled out, outcomes of the second and third type would forces the assumption.

We all know, of Some researchers, and particularly those with a qual- course, this is not the case. The value of triangulation is Miles and Huberman pp. Using these forms of and better evidence from which researchers can construct work as metaphors suggests a different process for meaningfid propositions about the social world.

The value of triangulating involving intuition, an ever-present degree triangulation lies in providing evidence such that the of uncertainty, and purposive human action. These are in- researcher can construct explanations of the social deed more descriptive metaphors which may or may not phenomena from which they arise. This section of the paper, drawing on the evaluation of the mathematics project previously mentioned, gives an An Alternative Conception of Triangulation example of each of the three possible outcomes from a The second part of this paper will outline an alternative triangulation strategy.

The outcomes are not, however, an reason for using a triangulation strategy which does not end in themselves. The researcher is left with the task of rely on the assumptions discussed above. The examples making sense of the evidence regardless of what the out- in this part of this paper are based on the evaluation of come is.

So whether the data converge, are inconsistent, a large scale mathematics curriculum and teacher develop- or are contradictory the researcher must attempt to con- ment project. This project provided ample opportunity to struct explanations for the data and about the data.

Follow- employ triangulation, and while the outcome was occas- ing each of the examples is a possible, and hopefully plausi- sionally convergence upon a single conclusion, more fre- ble, explanation for the data presented. The value of tri- quently the outcome was inconsistent findings or, on some angulation lies in providing evidence--whether con- occasions, contradictory findings. I suspect the degree to vergent, inconsistent, or contradictory--such that the which these alternative outcomes occurred in this particular researcher can construct good explanations of the social evaluation, which actually included four different projects, phenomena from which they arise.

I suggest that triangulation as a strategy other goals, to increase the amount of time teachers spent provides evidence for the researcher to make sense of some teaching mathematics.

Teachers' self-reports at the end of social phenomenon, but that the triangulation strategy does the year indicate, on average, they taught math for 48 not, in and of itself, do this. More accurately, there are tions as time by giving district guidelines or classroom three outcomes that might result from a triangulation observations we felt teachers may have extended their strategy. The first is that which is commonly assumed to math instruction because we were observing their class.

The no- The fairly close estimates of time spent on math may sug- tion of convergence needs little explanation: data from dif- gest that such skepticism was ill-founded. Both estimates ferent sources, methods, investigators, and so on will pro- indicate a small increase in time spent on math from the vide evidence that will result in a single proposition about previously spent self-reported average of 38 minutes per some social phenomenon.

For the seventh and eighth tion may be inconsistent, not confirming but not grade classes, on the other hand, there was a preoccupa- contradictory. It appeared that more time was ing transitional and typically non-instructional times of the taken for quizzing and enrichment activities in these day.

Teachers reported using the activity cards extensive- classes, and therefore they did not get as far into the cur- ly but in over classroom observations only 14 such ac- riculum as ninth grade classes. How is it that the preceding explanations are d e r i v e d?

Explanation: An attempt to explain the inconsistency of The traditional view of triangulation would have us put these results requires going beyond the data obtained from forward propositions about the social world that all of our these methods.

We trusted our observational data and the data sources, methods, and so on agree on. By doing this, teachers' self-reports; these two sources of data and data one would necessarily be unduly restricted in making quite collection methods also resulted in convergence on other valid claims about social phenomena. One is not, nor issues. By delving into the background understanding the should one be, shackled by the immediately available em- evaluator acquires during an extended and intimate interac- pirical evidence in rendering some social p h e n o m e n o n tion with project participants it is possible to construct a understandable.

If one A close examination of the explanations offered here sug- separates teachers' actions from their thoughts a plausi- gests that several levels of evidence are required for the ble explanation might be as follows. As an abstract idea, researcher to construct plausible explanations.

There are teachers were very positively disposed toward using non- obviously the data on hand. There is, also, a holistic instructional time for math activities, a sentiment expressed understanding of the project itself, its history, the inten- in many ways throughout the school year.

However, in tions of the developers, the ongoing relationships within practical terms, such an idea is not so easily enacted. For the project, and so on. This understanding about a pro- one thing, teachers would have no unplanned time even ject or program is frequently unarticulated, a part of that a short activity shares many of the characteristics of a com- vast body of tacit knowledge that we all have.

So, teachers support the idea through understandings about the social world which allows such their responses, but have difficulty implementing the idea projects and evaluations of them to exist. In the examples as we observed in classrooms. It takes all of these levels to to incommensurable. When teachers indicated how many of the total 13 derstandings of the larger social world.

So, the example chapters were covered, the median number for ninth grade of convergent data, the amount of time teachers spend was 12, for eighth grade it was 11, and seventh grade teaching mathematics, requires explanation in much the classes got about half way through the 11th chapter. Background Citations. Methods Citations. Results Citations. Citation Type. Has PDF. Publication Type. More Filters. The purpose of this paper is to bring attention to an important aspect of mixed methods research design which occurs when the qualitative findings do not match the quantitative findings within a … Expand.

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